外文翻译---高层结构与钢结构

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Talling building and Steel construction

Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.

The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.

Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions ,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.

In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.

Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.

Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses ,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building ( 1974) in Milwaukee .

Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago . The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York

Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago , using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.

Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube , bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft ( 442m), is the world’s tallest building.

Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the fa?ade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.

Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin fa ?ade , the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes ,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh .

Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.

Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.

Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.

Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore , Owings & Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.

Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan , West German, France , and other steel producers in the 1970s.

Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin ( openj -hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge , built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designin 内容过长，仅展示头部和尾部部分文字预览，全文请查看图片预览。在美国发展的，但是它却影响着全世界钢材工业的发展。十九世纪的最后几年，基本结构形状工字型钢的厚度已经达到 20 英寸（ 0.508 米），非对称的 Z 字型钢和 T 型钢可以与有一定宽度和厚度的板相联结，使得构件具体符合要求的尺寸和强度。 1885 年最重的型钢通过热轧生产出来，每英寸不到 100 磅（ 45 千克）。到二十世纪六十年代这个数字已经达到每英寸 700 磅（ 320 千克）。

紧随着钢结构的发展， 1988 年第一部电梯问世了。安全载客电梯诞生，以及安全经济的钢结构设计方法的发展促使建筑高度迅猛增加。 1902 年在纽约建造的高 286 英寸（ 87.2 米）的 Flatiron 大厦不断地被后来的建筑所超越。这些建筑分别是高 375 英尺（ 115 米）的时代大厦（ 1904 ），（后来改名为联合化工制品大厦）。 1908 年在华尔街建造的高 468 英尺（ 143 米）的城市***大厦，高 612 英尺（ 187 米）的星尔大厦，以及 700 英尺（ 214 米）的都市塔和 780 英尺高（ 232 米）的 Woll worth 大厦。

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